BIOLOGY 238 Unit 2 Objectives

1. Define and differentiate between ventilation, external respiration, internal respiration, and cellular respiration.

2. Identify the location, function, and structural characteristics of the following: nasal cavity, external and internal nares, ethmoid bone, nasal septum, perpendicular plate, vomer, palatine bone, hard and soft palates, conchae, vibrissae, paranasal sinuses. mucosa (nasal, olfactory, respiratory) pharynx (nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx), pharyngeal tonsils, lingual tonsils, palatine tonsils, eustachian canals, larynx, glottis, epiglottis, vestibular folds, vocal folds, arytenoid cartilage, arytenoid muscle, hyoid bone, thyroid cartilage, thyroid gland, cricoid cartilage, laryngeal prominence.

3. Describe the structural and functional characteristics of the mucosal lining as it progresses from the nasal cavity through the respiratory tree.

4. Describe the structural anatomy of the trachea and relate to its functions. Include: C-ring cartilages, mucosa, submucosa, seromucus glands, trachealis muscle. Term: mucociliary escalator.

5. Describe the locations, structures, and functions of the following components of the respiratory tree: primary bronchi, secondary (lobar) bronchi, tertiary (segmental) bronchi, subsegmental bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles. Term: bronchopulmonary segments.

6. Describe the location, structure, and relationship of respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, alveoli, pulmonary capillaries. Terms: type I alveolar cells, type II alveolar cells, respiratory membrane, surfactant.

7. Differentiate the location, structures, and function of the respiratory zone as compared to the conducting zone. Describe the changes in mucosa, cartilage, and muscularis which occur in passing from one zone to the next.

8. Describe the structural and functional relationships of the lungs, thoracic cavity (thorax), pleural membranes (parietal pleura, visceral pleura), ribcage, mediastinum, diaphragm. Terms: lobes, cardiac notch of lung, root of lung, apex, hilus, base of lung, elastic stroma, serous membrane, pleurisy.

9. Define and differentiate between compliance and elasticity and identify the forces which contribute to each. Describe the importance of these processes to ventilation. Include: surfactant, negative pleural pressure, recoil, distensibility, surface tension of water. Describe the relationship of the above to: hyaline membrane disease (IRDS), pulmonary fibrosis, emphysema, chronic lung disease (COPD), pneumothorax, atelectasis.

10. Describe the process of ventilation including the muscles involved and the pressure changes which produce gas exchange. Include: diaphragm, external intercostals, internal intercostals, scalenes, pectoralis minor, sternocleidomastoid (SCM), abdominal muscles. Terms: quiet respiration, forced (active) respiration, atmospheric pressure, intrapulmonic pressure, intrapleural pressure, thoracic pressure, Boyle's Law.

11. Define and explain the relationships between the following respiratory volumes and capacities: tidal volume (TV), inspiratory reserve volume (IRV), expiratory reserve volume (ERV), vital capacity (VC), residual volume (RV), inspiratory capacity (IC), functional residual volume (FRV), anatomical and physiological dead space.

12. Differentiate between obstructive and restrictivedisorders and describe their diagnostic relationship to the above volumes. Identify those disorders which fall into each category. Terms: FEV₁, bronchitis, asthma, pulmonary fibrosis, emphysema, COPD, obstructive emphysema.

13. Explain the calculations of minute respiratory volume (MRV) and alveolar ventilation rate (AVR) using respiratory rate, TV, and anatomical dead space. Describe how these values vary in restful and active breathing and the relative impact on them of rateand depth.

14. Define Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures and explain its importance to respiration. Describe the impact of altitude on total and partial pressures.

15. Explain the mechanisms of alveolar ventilation, external respiration, and internal respiration and their relationships to partial pressures. Explain the mechanisms of O₂ and CO₂transport from the inspired air to/from the alveoli, from alveoli to/from the blood, and from blood to/from the systemic tissues. Terms: respiratory membrane, pO₂, pCO₂, concentration gradient.

16. Describe the mechanism of oxygen transport and the effects on it and on hemoglobin saturation of: pO₂, pCO₂, pH, CO, 23DPG, temperature, altitude. Describe the relationship of the shift between oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin to the transport of carbon dioxide and its chemical reaction in the blood. Describe the effect of altitude.

17. Describe the mechanism of carbon dioxide transport and its importance to the blood's buffer system and to the transport and delivery of oxygen to the tissues. Describe the effect of altitude on these processes. Terms: carbaminohemoglobin, bicarbonate buffer, Bohr Effect, Haldane Effect.

18. Describe the mechanisms of ventilation-perfusion coupling. Include the effect of increasing and decreasing blood oxygen on perfusion of an area of the lung, and increased or decreased blood carbon dioxide in airway dilation to an area of the lung.

19. Describe the mechanisms of respiratory control. Include the roles of the pons, medulla, ventral respiratory group, dorsal respiratory group. Terms: rhythmicity, Hering-Breuer Reflex.

20. Describe the mechanism by which the respiratory system is stimulated by and responds to the following: pCO2, pO2, pH, H+, exercise, emotions, voluntary hyperventilation, voluntary hypoventilation, bronchial irritants, acidosis, alkalosis. Include the roles of the central and peripheral chemoreceptors, higher brain centers, stretch receptors, vagal afferents.